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2023 01 13

Table of Contents:

GS Paper 1:

  1. Gujarat’s Harappan necropolis reveals death rituals of 5,000  years ago

GS Paper 2:

  1. The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) drafted guidelines for assessing
  2. Basic Structure Doctrine

GS Paper 3:

  1. Global Risk Report 2023
  2. Cabinet forms three multi-state cooperative societies at the national level

Content for Mains Enrichment (Ethics/Essay/ Governance)

  1. Self-healing concrete

Facts for Prelims

  1. Registrar General of India (RGI)
  2. PM Garbi Kalyan Ann Yojana (PMGKAY)
  3. GSP (Generalized System of Preferences)Status
  4. Promoting Digital Payment
  5. Evidence of a giant mantle plume found on Mars
  6. New surgical knife detects endometrial cancer within seconds
  7. Using artificial photosynthesis to make green hydrogen at record efficiency
  8. Four dinosaur species were found in the Chilean valley

Gujarat’s Harappan necropolis reveals death rituals of 5,000  years ago

GS Paper 1

Syllabus: Ancient India

Source: TOI

Context: Excavations at one of the biggest necropolises at Juna Khatiya village (Kutch, Gujarat) show rows of graves with valuable items such as Ceramic pots, beaded jewellery, animal bones etc.

  • They date back to 3200BCE to 2600BCE (predating several other Harappan sites)
  • Dholavira ( a UNESCO world heritage site in Gujarat) has a cemetery in and around the town, but no major habitation has been discovered around Juan Khatiya.

What is a necropolis?

A necropolis is a large, designed cemetery with elaborate tomb monuments. The name stems from the Ancient Greek meaning “city of the dead“. The pyramid at Giza, in Egypt, is an example of a necropolis — it’s the tomb of an Egyptian pharaoh.

Burial practices in the Indus Valley Civilization:

  • Three forms of burial were found at Mohenjodaro—complete, fractional and post-cremation.
    • Post‐cremation urn burials, predominant in the Mohenjodaro area
    • Pot/urn burials are found at Kalibangan
    • Sanauli– It is in the Baghpat district of UP and is known for the Archaeological remains of the Harappan cemetery.
  • Post-cremation (burial of bones or ashes) was the most common form of burial custom in the Indus Valley
  • The head of the dead was normally laid towards the North and commonly used items were used as grave goods which were buried along with the dead.
  • Other findings
      • Brick chamber and Cists- Kalibagan
      • Wooden Coffin- Harappa
      • Pair of Skeletons- Lothal
      • Burial of man and dog- Ropar

Significance of studying burial practices:

  • A study of its burial rites, rituals and customs has revealed many details about life in this culture.
  • They demonstrate that around the world- ancient afterlife items are buried along with the body in almost all the civilizations
  • Gender difference: A higher number of votive pots (offering pots) in male graves indicates women were not considered equal to male citizens.
  • Shows multiple classes: Ornaments were found on women of multiple social classes, including necklaces and bangles made of copper, shell, and gemstones.
  • Connection with other civilizations: Archeologists currently presume the objects in votive pots were to serve the individuals in the afterlife. Some burial customs are similar to their contemporary Egyptian civilization.
  • Juan Khatiya demonstrate the transition from earth-mound burials to stone graves
  • The pottery has features and style similar to those excavated from early Harappan sites in Sindh and Balochistan (Pakistan)

About Indus Valley Civilization:

The cultures of the Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization), are thought to range in existence anywhere from 5500 BCE to 1700 BCE. This civilization reached its peak maturity from 2600 BCE to 1600 BCE.

Insta Links

Society in IVC

Mains Links

Q. Examine how excavations of remnants of the Harappan Civilization in India have helped historians to understand Harappan culture. (10M)

Prelims Links

Q. With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans and Indus Valley people, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2017)

  1. Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare whereas the people of the Indus Valley Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.
  2. Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver and copper whereas Indus Valley people knew only copper and iron.
  3. Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse whereas there is no evidence of Indus Valley people having been aware of this animal.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: C

Which of the following characterizes/characterizes the people of the Indus Civilization? (UPSC 2013)

  1. They possessed great palaces and temples.
  2. They worshipped both male and female deities.
  3. They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare.

Select the correct statement/ statements using the codes given below.

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 2 only

(c) 1, 2 and 3

(d) None of the statements given above is correct

Answer: B

January 13, 2023 /13 Jan 2023, Today's Article

Basic Structure Doctrine

GS Papers 2

Syllabus: Indian Judiciary

Source: Indian Express, Indian Express

Context: Vice President Jagdeep Dhankar criticised the Supreme Court for using the Basic Structure Doctrine to strike down constitutional amendments by Parliament, such as the NJAC Act.

  • Previously, the VP had called the striking down of the NJAC Act a “severe compromise” of parliamentary sovereignty and disregard of the “mandate of the people”

What is the basic structure doctrine?

The Doctrine of Basic Structure is a form of judicial review that is used to test the legality of any legislation by the courts.

  • The doctrine was evolved by the Supreme Court in the 1973 landmark ruling in Kesavananda Bharati v State of Kerala. In a 7-6 verdict, a 13-judge Constitution Bench ruled that the ‘basic structure’ of the Constitution is inviolable, and could not be amended by Parliament.

Basic Structure Doctrine (BSD) test:

  • If a law is found to “damage or destroy” the “basic features of the Constitution”, the Court declares it unconstitutional.
  • The test is applied to constitutional amendments to ensure the amendment does not dilute the fundamentals of the Constitutional itself.
  • The test is widely regarded as a check on majoritarian impulses of the Parliament since it places substantive limits on the power to amend the Constitution.

Origin:

The origins of the basic structure doctrine are found in the post-war German Constitution law which, after the Nazi regime, was amended to protect some basic laws.

Background:

After a reversal of key legislation including land reforms; nationalization of banks; abolition of the privy purse- the Parliament brought in a constitutional amendment to give itself the power to amend any part of the Constitution and passed a law that it cannot be reviewed by the courts.

  • The Court had to then examine the scope of the Parliament’s power to amend the Constitution and the legality of the land reforms.

 

What are the basic features of the Indian Constitution?

The content of the doctrine is derived from the several judgements of the court e.g. judicial review, rule of law, federalism, and democratic republic structure are identified as basic features.

Significance of Basic Structure:

  • It is a testimony to the theory of Constitutionalismto prevent the damage to the essence of COI by the brute majority of the ruling majority.
  • It saved the Indian democracy as it acts as a limitation of constituent power or else unlimited power of parliament might have turned India into a totalitarian regime.
  • It helps us to retain the basic tenets of our constitutionso meticulously framed by the founding fathers of our Constitution.
  • It strengthens our democracy by delineating a true separation of powerwhere the Judiciary is independent of the other two organs.
  • Being dynamic in nature, it is more progressive and open to changes in time, unlike the rigid nature of earlier judgements.

Why is the doctrine criticised?

  • It is not found in the text of the original Constitution itself and therefore by inventing this test the judiciary is encroaching on the Parliament’s powers.
  • Senior advocate Raju Ramachandran: The power of “unelected judges” to strike down amendments to the Constitution on the basis of this doctrine is “anti-democratic and counter-majoritarian.”

Conclusion:

However, the doctrine rests on a sound structural interpretation of the Constitution. Many of the critics of the basic structure such as Justice YV Chandrachud, former Chief Justice of India found himself in the minority in the Kesavananda Bharati ruling. However, in subsequent rulings where the Court applied the test, Justice Chandrachud applied the doctrine to limit Parliament’s powers.

Related Concept:

Who was Kesavanand Bharati?

Kesavananda Bharati (9 December 1940 – 6 September 2020) was a Hindu monk who served as the Shankaracharya (head) of Edneer Mutt, a Hindu monastery in Kasaragod district, Kerala, India from 1961 until his death.

The case in which Bharati had challenged a Kerala Land Reform Act nearly four decades ago set the principle that the Supreme Court is the guardian of the basic structure of the constitution

Parliamentary sovereignty is a concept which holds that the legislative body has absolute sovereignty and is supreme over all other government institutions, including executive or judicial bodies. In which the sovereign legislature may change or repeal any previous legislation and is not bound by any written law like a constitution.

In a democracy, parliamentary sovereignty can’t be inviolable. Because

  • It depends upon the nature of the constitution either the constitution has absolutely given the freedom to parliament or it has restricted the absolute power of parliament through any provisions.
  • The sovereign power of the parliament will be dependent upon the checks and balance mechanism provided by the constitution.

Insta Links

Basic Structure Doctrine

Mains Links

Q. The basic structure doctrine prevents the abuse of power by the executive and legislature, preventing it from becoming a majoritarian regime. Examine. (15M)

Prelims Links

Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020)

  1. The Constitution of India defines its ‘basic structure’ in terms of federalism, secularism, fundamental rights and democracy.
  2. The Constitution of India provides for ‘judicial review’ to safeguard the citizens’ liberties and to preserve the ideals on which the Constitution is based.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2 only

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: B

January 13, 2023 /13 Jan 2023, Today's Article

The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) drafted guidelines for assessing minors

GS Paper 2

Syllabus: Laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for the protection of vulnerable sections

Source: IE

Direction: The article discusses the need to frame new guidelines for the Preliminary Assessment of children (between 16-18) in conflict with the law as adults under the JJ Act.

Context: The NCPCR has come up with draft guidelines on the preliminary assessment of whether certain minors are to be tried under law as adults in particular cases, under the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act.

Background:

  • Previously, all children under the age of 18 were deemed minors by the law, but a provision was added to the JJ Act in 2015 that allows a child in conflict with the law to be tried as an adult.
  • In cases of heinous offences, a child between the ages of 16 and 18 may be tried as an adult, and the Juvenile Justice Board (JJB) must perform a preliminary assessment to determine whether to try such a child as an adult or a minor.
  • If tried as an adult, the child may be sentenced to jail, with the exception of death or life imprisonment

Need for the NCPCR’s draft guidelines:

  • Recently, the SC held that the task of preliminary assessment under the JJ Act is a “delicate task” and the assessment requires expertise and direction to put in place specific guidelines.
  • The NCPCR has framed guidelines which describe the key procedures to conduct the preliminary assessment.
  • While the course of assessment may differ from child to child, the guidelines are meant to frame essential components and the basic mechanisms to address any ambiguity.

The draft guidelines:

  • The preliminary assessment has to determine four aspects:
    • The physical capacity of the child
    • Mental capacity
    • Circumstances in which the offence was allegedly committed
    • Ability to understand the consequences of the alleged offence
  • It also states that the experts (from the field of child psychology and psychiatry) must be given an optimal opportunity to interact with the child to build a rapport.
  • A copy of the assessment (conducted within 3 months of the child being produced before the JJB) must be given to the child and a legal aid counsel must be present during the assessment.
  • The JJB must rely on the Social Investigation Report, statements of witnesses and interaction with parents, guardians, school staff, peer groups and neighbours.

National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR):

●        It is an Indian statutory body established by an Act of Parliament – the Commission for Protection of Child Rights (CPCR) Act, 2005.

●        The Commission works under the aegis of the Union Ministry of Women and Child Development and became operational in 2007.

●        It is mandated to ensure that all Laws, Policies, Programmes, and Administrative Mechanisms align with the Child Rights perspective as enshrined in the Indian Constitution and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.

●        As defined by the commission, a child includes a person up to the age of 18 years.

JJ Act, 2015:

●        The Ministry of Women and Child Development introduced the Act to replace the Juvenile Delinquency Law and the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act of 2000.

●        One of the main provisions of the Act is that minors in conflict with the law between the ages of 16 and 18 can be tried as adults.

Insta Links:

Juvenile Justice Act amendment may backfire

Mains Links:

Q. Is the National Commission for Women able to strategize and tackle the problems that women face in both public and private spheres? Give reasons in support of your answer. (UPSC 2017)

January 13, 2023 /13 Jan 2023, Today's Article

Global Risk Report 2023

GS Paper 3

Syllabus: Disaster management

Source: WEF

Context: World Economic Forum (WEF) has released Global Risk Report 2023

Key findings:

  • Major global risks (see below image)
    • In the next 2 years: Cost of living; Natural disasters and extreme weather events; Geoeconomic confrontation
    • In the next 10 years: Failure to mitigate climate change; Biodiversity loss and ecosystem collapse
  • Major risks to India: Digital inequality; geopolitical confrontation for resources, the rising cost of living, debt crisis, natural disasters and extreme weather events
  • Technologies such as AI, Quantum and Biotechnology are going to exacerbate the inequalities and digital divide ( if no action is taken to mitigate it)
  • Economic and geopolitical risks:
    • Covid-19 and Ukraine war has resulted in rising inflation, rapid normalization of monetary policies, low-growth and low-investment era
    • A miscalibration between monetary and fiscal policies will raise the likelihood of liquidity shocks, signalling a more prolonged economic downturn and debt distress on a global scale.
    • Geopolitical fragmentation will drive geoeconomic warfare and heighten the risk of multi-domain conflicts
      • g. data regarding Russia’s boreal forests –the biggest land-based carbon store on the planet – is no longer available for international scientific research because of the war in Ukraine.
    • Concurrent shocks, deeply interconnected risks and eroding resilience are giving rise to the risk of polycrises ( one crisis leading to another and the overall impact far exceeds the sum of each part)
  • Food, fuel and cost crises exacerbate societal vulnerability while declining investments in human development erode future resilience
  • As volatility in multiple domains grows in parallel, the risk of polycrises accelerates

Recommendations:

  • Strengthening global risk preparedness and cooperation
  • Risk identification and foresight of coming risks and ways to solve it
  • Investment in risk preparedness
  • Rethinking ‘future’ risks

What is Global Risk?

It is defined as the possibility that something bad may happen which will affect all countries

About Global risk report:

The Global Risks Report is an annual study published by the World Economic Forum ahead of the Forum’s Annual Meeting in Davos, Switzerland. Based on the work of the Global Risk Network, the report describes changes occurring in the global risks landscape from year to year.

About WEF:

It was established in 1971 as a not-for-profit foundation (HQ: Geneva, Switzerland). The World Economic Forum brings together decision-makers from across society to work on projects and initiatives that make a real difference.

Fig: Founder and Executive Chairman of WEF: Klaus Schwab

Some major reports published by WEF are:

  • Energy Transition Index.
  • Global Competitiveness Report.
  • Global IT Report
  • WEF along with INSEAD, and Cornell University publishes this report.
  • Global Gender Gap Report.
  • Global Risk Report.
  • Global Travel and Tourism Report.

Insta Links:

Towards sustainable growth

January 13, 2023 /13 Jan 2023, Today's Article

Cabinet forms three multi-state cooperative societies at the national level

GS Paper 3

Syllabus: Cooperative Societies – Agricultural Finance

Source: PIB, The Hindu

Context: The Union Cabinet approved the setting up of three new cooperative bodies — national multi-state cooperative export society, national multi-state cooperative organic society and national multi-state cooperative seed society — under the Multi-State Cooperative Societies (MSCS) Act, 2002.

Will help in achieving the goal of “Sahakar-se-Samriddhi” through the inclusive growth model of cooperatives.

Features:

  • Primary to national level cooperatives societies including primary societies, district, state and national level federations and MSCS can become its member

State of cooperatives in India:

There are about 8.50 lakh cooperatives, which have around 29 crore members mainly from rural areas, who will benefit from the move.

Insta Links:

Ministry of Cooperation

Mains Link:

Q. Analyze the role of Cooperative societies as an economic driver towards national development.

January 13, 2023 /13 Jan 2023, Today's Article

Content for Mains Enrichment

Self-healing concrete

New research from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Harvard University, and laboratories in Italy and Switzerland have found that Romans used a ‘hot-mixing’ method of concrete to create their durable structures.

Significance

  • Knowledge about ancient techniques: The unexpected ancient manufacturing strategy might hold the key to the architectural creations of the Romans.
  • Unique properties: The method gave the concrete self-healing properties so that cracks would fill before they could spread
  • It can also help reduce the environmental impact of cement production

How did Romans make durable concrete?

Romans employed a hot mixing method and used quicklime in conjunction with, or instead of, slaked lime for producing concrete. Hot mixing was the key to the super-durable nature.

Fig: A schematic of the proposed mechanism for self-healing within ancient Roman mortars. Source: Science Advances

Romans

About Romans:

Roman civilization refers to the period from the founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD.

The ancient Romans were masters of engineering, constructing vast networks of roads, aqueducts, ports and massive buildings, whose remains have survived for two millennia

Many of these structures were built with concrete: Rome’s famed Pantheon, which has the world’s largest unreinforced concrete dome and was dedicated in 128 CE, is still intact.

Fig:: Rome’s famed Pantheon

Facts for Prelims:

Registrar General of India (RGI)

Source: The Hindu

Context: The Office of the Registrar-General of India (RGI) is following the set of criteria set out by the Lokur Committee nearly 60 years ago to define any new community as a Scheduled Tribe

The criteria of the Lokur Committee for recognition of any community under the ST list are:

  • Indications of primitive traits
  • Distinctive culture
  • Geographical isolation
  • The shyness of contact with the community at large
  • Backwardness

However, over the years, the criteria have come under severe criticism.

Previously Central government has called these criteria “obsolete”, “condescending”, “dogmatic”, and “rigid” and it was considering a proposal to change the criteria for scheduling new communities as STs.

  • The Office of the RGI’s nod is mandatory for the inclusion of any community in ST lists, as per the procedure for scheduling tribes.

About RGI:

Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India, founded in 1961 by the Government of India Ministry of Home Affairs, for arranging, conducting and analysing the results of the demographic surveys of India including the Census of India and Linguistic Survey of India.

PM Garib Kalyan Ann Yojana (PMGKAY)

Source: The Hindu

Context: The Central Government’s integrated food security scheme has been named the Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Ann Yojana (PMGKAY), under which free foodgrains are being given to more than 80 crore poor people from January 1

  • Nodal Department: Department of Food and Public distribution

GSP (Generalized System of Preferences)Status

Source: Live Mint

Context: India has sought restoration of the preferential access to the US market that was revoked by Washington in 2019.

About GSP status:

GSP is the largest and oldest U.S. trade preference program. Established by the Trade Act of 1974, GSP promotes economic development by eliminating duties on thousands of products when imported from one of 119 designated beneficiary countries and territories.

Origin of GSP

It was 1st instituted by the UNCTAD conference in 1971

Why US terminated India’s GSP status?

President Donald Trump has terminated India’s designation as a beneficiary developing nation under the key GSP trade programme due to India’s failure to provide the United States with assurances that it will provide equitable and reasonable access to its markets in numerous sectors

How has the termination of GSP impacted India?

India was the largest beneficiary of the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) status in 2017, with $5.7 billion worth of imports into the US given duty-free status. About 2,000 products including auto parts and textile materials were allowed to enter the US duty-free.

Current Indo-US trade:

Bilateral trade between India and the US rose to $119.5 billion in 2021-22 from $80.5 billion in 2020-21

Promoting Digital Payment

Source: Indian Express

Context: Union Cabinet has also approved the incentive scheme for the promotion of RuPay Debit Cards and low-value BHIM-UPI transactions (person-to-merchant) for a period of one year from April 2022.

Under this:

Banks will be incentivized to promote Point of Sale (PoS) and e-commerce transactions using RuPay and UPI (UPI lite and UPI 123 Pay)

    • UPI LITE is a new payment solution (by NPCI) for low-value transactions that have been set at below ₹ It works as an ‘on-device wallet’
    • UPI 123Pay (by NPCI and RBI) is a new feature via which UPI may be used on feature phones, enabling payments to be made without a connection to the internet.

About UPI

It is a real-time payment system (started in 2016) to link multiple bank accounts into a single mobile application. It works by SIM binding and was allowed only for Indian mobile numbers but now has been allowed for NRIs, NRE (non-resident external) and NRO( non-resident ordinary) international mobile numbers from 10 countries including the USA, Canada, Australia etc.

Fig: Working of UPI

About NPCI:

National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI), an umbrella organisation for operating retail payments and settlement systems in India, is an initiative of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the Indian Banks’ Association (IBA) under the provisions of the Payment and Settlement Systems Act, 2007, for creating a robust Payment & Settlement Infrastructure in India.

  • It has been incorporated as a “Not for Profit” Company under the provisions of Section 25 of the Companies Act 1956 (now Section 8 of the Companies Act 2013)
  • It facilitates payments such as UPI Payment, Bharat Bill Pay, RuPay Card, FASTag, NACH etc.

Evidence of a giant mantle plume found on Mars

Source: The Hindu

Context:  A new study shows evidence of what could be an active mantle plume beneath the surface of the red planet

About new findings:

  • According to the evidence, the mantle plume is situated underneath a low-lying area called Elysium Planitia that lies north of the equator. Though an otherwise indistinctive area, scientists found unexpected evidence of geological activities in Elysium in the recent past.
  • Studying the data from NASA’s InSight lander, scientists found that the volcanic eruptions at Elysium Planitia originate from a set of fissures called Cerberus Fossae that stretch for more than 1278 kilometres (800 miles) across the planet’s surface.
  • They also found that most marsquakes emanate from this region.

About Mantle Plumes:

  • Mantle plumes are large blobs of molten rock that rise towards the surface from the interiors of a planet. They push through the intermediate or mantle layers and accumulate at the base of the crust.
  • This geological phenomenon can be witnessed on Earth in Hawaii where the warm materials from the plume ooze out of fissures to create great volcanic plains.

New surgical knife detects endometrial cancer within seconds

Source: The Hindu

Context: A recently developed surgical knife capable of identifying tumours can detect endometrial cancer within seconds, allowing people with healthy uteruses to get the ‘all-clear’ faster.

According to the World Cancer Research Fund International, womb or endometrial cancer is the 6th most commonly occurring cancer among people with uteruses.

About iKnife:

The researchers found that a surgical tool called iKnife could accurately detect the presence of endometrial cancer. The iKnife is already being used to spot breast and brain cancer

How it works:

The knife uses electric currents on biopsy tissue and then analyses the vapourised aerosols from the tissue in a mass spectrometer to give real-time information about activity in the tissue.

The study noted that the iKnife reliably diagnosed endometrial cancer in tissue within seconds with an accuracy of 89%. This would greatly minimise the delays faced by patients who wait for a normal histopathological diagnosis.

Using artificial photosynthesis to make green hydrogen at record efficiency

Source: The Hindu

Context: A study published has reported a way to achieve relatively high efficiency in an artificial photosynthesis reaction in which water is split into oxygen and hydrogen using sunlight and a catalyst. The technique is called photocatalysis.

The current method to make green hydrogen:

The conventional way to produce green hydrogen is electrolysis, where water is split into its constituent elements by passing a large current through it. If both the electrolyser and the source of electricity are green, the resulting hydrogen is also green.

Currently, most of the hydrogen in India is produced by steam-reforming: methane is mixed with water in a reactor at 800-900º C and 20-30 atmospheres of pressure to yield hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The resulting hydrogen is thus ‘grey’.

Photocatalysis:

Photocatalytic STH is inspired by photosynthesis, where leaves use energy from incident sunlight to split water into oxygen and hydrogen. Here, “the process consists of a semiconductor photocatalyst wafer immersed in freshwater or seawater.

When photons in sunlight strike the wafer, they dislodge electrons in its atoms, which trigger a redox reaction in the water and separate hydrogen and oxygen. The energy source is sunlight and the feedstock is water – both abundant on Earth and green by nature.

Efficiency:

In a 10-hour test, the group recorded an efficiency of 7.4% with tap water and 6.6% with seawater, probably “the result of ions or other impurities present” in the liquids, according to the paper. The 9.2% record required deionised water. The STH efficiency was 3% in a 140-hour test.

Four dinosaur species were found in the Chilean valley

Source: The Hindu

Context: Scientists have found the remains of four species of dinosaurs, including a megaraptor, in an inhospitable valley in Chilean Patagonia that has emerged over the past decade as an important fossil deposit.

Findings:

They also identified two specimens of Unenlagiinae, closely related to velociraptors and which have a “novel evolutionary character, which would indicate that this is a new species of unenlagine or perhaps a representative of a different clade (group).

They also found remains of two bird species: an Enantiornithe, the most diverse and abundant group of birds of the Mesozoic; and Ornithurinae, a group directly related to present-day birds.

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